PostgreSQL

Data Type Defaults

Schema Rules

• Every FK column gets an index (PG does NOT auto-create these)
• NOT NULL on every column unless NULL has business meaning
• CHECK constraints for domain rules at DB level
• EXCLUDE constraints for range overlaps: EXCLUDE USING gist (room WITH =, during WITH &&)
• Default created_at TIMESTAMPTZ NOT NULL DEFAULT now()
• Separate updated_at with trigger, never trust app layer alone
• Use BIGINT PKs — cheaper JOINs than UUID, better index locality

Index Strategy

Index rules:

• Composite: most selective column first, max 3-4 columns
• Partial: WHERE status = 'active' — smaller, faster
• Covering: INCLUDE (col) — avoids heap lookup
• Expression: ON (lower(email)) — for function-based WHERE
• Drop unused indexes: SELECT * FROM pg_stat_user_indexes WHERE idx_scan = 0

JSONB Patterns

-- GIN index for containment queries
CREATE INDEX ON items USING gin (metadata);
SELECT * FROM items WHERE metadata @> '{"status": "active"}';

-- Expression index for specific key access
CREATE INDEX ON items ((metadata->>'category'));
SELECT * FROM items WHERE metadata->>'category' = 'electronics';

Prefer typed columns over JSONB for frequently queried, well-structured data. Use JSONB for truly dynamic/variable attributes.

Query Optimization

• Always EXPLAIN (ANALYZE, BUFFERS, FORMAT TEXT) before optimizing
• Sequential scan on large table → add index or check WHERE for function wrapping
• High rows removed by filter → index doesn't match predicate
• CTE is an optimization fence before PG12; use MATERIALIZED/NOT MATERIALIZED hints (PG12+)
• Prefer EXISTS over IN for correlated subqueries
• Use LATERAL JOIN when subquery needs outer row reference
• Cursor pagination (WHERE id > $last ORDER BY id LIMIT $n) over OFFSET

Partitioning

Use when table exceeds ~100M rows or needs TTL purge:

• RANGE — time-series (by month/year), most common
• LIST — categorical (by region, tenant)
• HASH — even distribution when no natural key

Partition key must be in every unique/PK constraint. Create indexes on partitions, not parent.

Transactions & Locking

• Keep transactions short — long txns block vacuum and bloat tables
• SELECT ... FOR UPDATE SKIP LOCKED — job queue / work claiming pattern
• Advisory locks for application-level mutual exclusion: pg_advisory_xact_lock(key)
• Check blocked queries: SELECT * FROM pg_stat_activity WHERE wait_event_type = 'Lock'

Full-Text Search

-- Weighted tsvector column with trigger
ALTER TABLE articles ADD COLUMN search_vector tsvector
  GENERATED ALWAYS AS (
    setweight(to_tsvector('english', coalesce(title,'')), 'A') ||
    setweight(to_tsvector('english', coalesce(body,'')), 'B')
  ) STORED;
CREATE INDEX ON articles USING gin (search_vector);
SELECT * FROM articles WHERE search_vector @@ websearch_to_tsquery('english', $1);

Performance Tuning

Key postgresql.conf parameters (adjust for available RAM):

• shared_buffers = 25% of RAM
• effective_cache_size = 75% of RAM
• work_mem = RAM / max_connections / 4 (start 4-16MB)
• maintenance_work_mem = 256MB-1GB
• random_page_cost = 1.1 for SSD (default 4.0 is for HDD)

Connection Pooling

Always pool in production. Direct connections cost ~10MB each.

• PgBouncer in transaction mode for most workloads
• statement mode if no session-level features (prepared statements, temp tables, advisory locks)

Maintenance

• pg_stat_statements extension — find slow queries by total time, not just duration
• pg_stat_user_tables — check n_dead_tup for vacuum needs
• autovacuum tuning: lower thresholds for hot tables
• Monitor cache hit ratio: SELECT sum(heap_blks_hit) / sum(heap_blks_hit + heap_blks_read) FROM pg_statio_user_tables — should be > 99%

Anti-Patterns